Browse through our digital library of carefully selected research papers, publications, and videos on Internet fragmentation and network shutdowns. Learn new ways to measure connectivity and understand the impact of network fragmentation. Follow our tool guides and manuals to stay connected during Internet shutdowns and even create your own community networks. Empower yourself with practical resources to navigate the complexities of splintered networks.

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Understanding the splinternet

• Nationalizing the Internet to Break a Protest Movement: Internet Shutdown and Counter-Appropriation in Iran of Late 2019. – Grinko, M., Qalandar, S., Randall, D., & Wulf, V. (2022). Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 6(CSCW2), 1-21.
• Standardising the splinternet: how China’s technical standards could fragment the internet. – Hoffmann, S., Lazanski, D., & Taylor, E. (2020). Journal of Cyber Policy, 5(2), 239-264
• Deciphering Russia’s “Sovereign internet law”: Tightening control and accelerating the Splinternet. – Epifanova, A. (2020).
• Splinternet Ahead? Africa’s Digital Policy in a World of Regions (Doctoral dissertation, University of Johannesburg). – Letswalo, N. (2022).
• The splinternet explained: Everything you need to know. – Hetler, A. (2022).
• Poster: Multi-Dimensional Observation of Splinternet. – Sutherland, E. D., & Phillips, I. (2021).
• ‘Splinternets’: Addressing the renewed debate on internet fragmentation. Perarnaud, C., Julien Rossi, Francesca Musiani and Lucien Castex. 2022.
• Network shutdowns – web series. 1st Department. YouTube. Russian language (with auto translation)
• What is a splinternet? eQualitie, 2023
  
  1. Internet shutdowns – when, how and why
  2. These applications may save you when they shut it down
  3. The splinternet – how they are dividing the internet and what to do about it

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Measuring the practices and impacts of network shutdowns

• Internet Freedom IODA User Guide + Internet Shutdown Rapid Response Protocol
• Destination Unreachable: Characterizing Internet Outages and Shutdowns – IODA, ACM SIGCOMM ’23, September 10–14, 2023, New York
• Government Internet Shutdowns Are Changing. How Should Citizens and
  Democracies Respond? – Steven Feldstein, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2022
• Disconnect and conquer, the future of Russian censorship – Teplitsa (Greenhouse for Social Technologies), 2023
• Pulling the plug: How Azerbaijan’s government combines technology and fear to control the internet – Azerbaijan Internet Watch, 2021
• Weapons of control, shields of impunity: Internet shutdowns in 2022 – AccessNow, 2022
• IGF 2022 – Policy Network on Internet Fragmentation – January 2023
• Internet Impact Assessment Toolkit: Introduction, 2020, Internet Society
• Borders and gateways: measuring and analyzing national as chokepoints. – Leyba, K. G., Edwards, B., Freeman, C., Crandall, J. R., & Forrest, S. (2019, July). In Proceedings of the 2nd ACM SIGCAS Conference on Computing and Sustainable Societies (pp. 184-194)
• As hegemony: A robust metric for as centrality. – Fontugne, R., Shah, A., & Aben, E. (2017). In Proceedings of the SIGCOMM Posters and Demos (pp. 48-50).
• Raman, R. S., Virkud, A., Laplante, S., Fortuna, V., & Ensafi, R. (2023). Advancing the art of censorship data analysis. Free and Open Communications on the Internet (FOCI).
• Sundara Raman, R., Shenoy, P., Kohls, K., & Ensafi, R. (2020, October). Censored planet: An internet-wide, longitudinal censorship observatory. In proceedings of the 2020 ACM SIGSAC conference on computer and communications security (pp. 49-66). 
• Graph Metrics for Internet Robustness–A Survey. – Oehlers, M., & Fabian, B. (2021).arXiv preprint arXiv:2103.05554.
• The Internet in Crimea: a case study on routing interregnum. – Fontugne, R., Ermoshina, K., & Aben, E. (2020, June). In 2020 IFIP Networking Conference (Networking) (pp. 809-814). IEEE.

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Solutions for staying connected during a shutdown

• Assessing the feasibility of Starlink as a censorship circumvention tool, University of Michigan, 2024
• How To Protect the Internet from Becoming the Splinternet, 2022, Internet Society

• Dolphin: a cellular voice based internet shutdown resistance system (Doctoral dissertation, IIIT-Delhi) – Sharma, R., Chakravarty, S., & Maity, M. (2022).
• Freedombox for Communities: free software servers for community networks

• Alnashwan, R., & Mokhtar, H. (2019, May). Disaster management system over Wifi direct. In 2019 2nd International Conference on Computer Applications & Information Security (ICCAIS) (pp. 1-6). IEEE.
• Improving Emergency Preparedness and Response in Rural Areas. – Doke, K., Affinnih, H. O., Yuan, Q., Gasco-Hernandez, M., Gil-Garcia, J. R., Bogdanov, P., & Zheleva, M. (2021, June). In ACM SIGCAS Conference on Computing and Sustainable Societies (pp. 66-78).

• “I want my voice to be heard: Ip over voice-over-ip for unobservable censorship circumvention.” – A. Houmansadr, T. J. Riedl, N. Borisov, and A. C. Singer, in NDSS, 2013.

• “Decoy routing: Toward unblockable internet communication.” – J. Karlin, D. Ellard, A. W. Jackson, C. E. Jones, G. Lauer, D. Mankins, and W. T. Strayer,in FOCI, 2011.
• Low-cost wireless mesh communications based on openWRT and voice over internet protocol. – Aminah, N. S., Raharjo, M. R. R., & Budiman, M. (2021). International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 11(6), 5119.
• Connectivity sharing for wireless mesh networks. – Batbayar, K. (2022).

• Secure scuttlebutt: An identity-centric protocol for subjective and decentralized applications. – Tarr, D., Lavoie, E., Meyer, A., & Tschudin, C. (2019, September). In Proceedings of the 6th ACM conference on information-centric networking (pp. 1-11).
• The MAZI toolkit for do-it-yourself networking. “The community network manual: how to build the Internet yourself”. – Niavis, H., Maglavera, S., Dadoukis, A., & Mavridis, J. (2018).
• DIY community WiFi networks: Insights on participatory design. Smyth, M., & Helgason, I. (2019, May). In Extended Abstracts of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1-6).
• HF Radio. Guide for facilitators and community installers. Peter Bloom. 2022